One Health is an integrated approach to studying infectious diseases that recognizes the strong and complex interconnections between humans, animals, plants, and the environment (Pitt and Gunn, 2024).
This approach plays a vital role in addressing interconnected health and environmental challenges while contributing to the advancement of global health outcomes.
Effective implementation of One Health relies on collaborative efforts across multiple sectors, which are essential for achieving sustainable development goals and managing emerging health threats.
As a result, both national and international cooperation has been significantly strengthened, particularly in response to global challenges such as climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic (Pitt and Gunn, 2024; Danasekaran, 2024).
Understanding the One Health Approach
The United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are closely aligned with the One Health approach, as they include objectives related to health and well-being, clean water and sanitation, climate action, and the sustainability of both marine and terrestrial ecosystems.
Recognizing the critical need for cross-disciplinary and multinational collaboration, four major global organizations have jointly formed the One Health Quadripartite to strengthen coordinated efforts worldwide.
The Quadripartite includes the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH, formerly OIE), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
These organizations have collectively identified six key focus areas within the One Health framework, which guide global strategies and interventions.
The six focus areas include laboratory services, control of zoonotic diseases, neglected tropical diseases, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), food safety, and environmental health.
Historical Development of the One Health Concept
The concept of One Health is not new; it was previously referred to as “One Medicine and One World” before evolving into the term “One Health” (Danasekaran, 2024).
Interactions between ecosystems, animal populations, and human populations have consistently played a significant role in shaping historical events, forming the basis for the One Health approach.
Ancient Foundation
The roots of the One Health concept can be traced back to ancient times.
Hippocrates (460–370 BCE), in his work On Airs, Waters, and Places, highlighted the connection between human health and the environment, laying an early conceptual foundation for One Health thinking (Evans and Leighton, 2014).
Similarly, Ashoka (304–232 BCE) in ancient India implemented policies aimed at improving both human and animal health, including the planting of medicinal herbs and the construction of wells for communal use (Lerner and Berg, 2015).
19th Century Developments
Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) introduced the term “zoonosis” to describe diseases that are transmissible between animals and humans.
He strongly advocated for an integrated approach to studying both animal and human health (Evans and Leighton, 2014).
During this period, increasing recognition of similarities in disease processes between humans and animals further strengthened the conceptual foundation of the One Health approach (Evans and Leighton, 2014).
20th Century Developments
Calvin Schwabe (1927–2006), often regarded as the father of modern One Health, introduced the term “One Medicine” in the mid-20th century.
He emphasized the importance of collaboration between veterinary and medical sciences, particularly in addressing zoonotic diseases (Pitt and Gunn, 2024; Evans and Leighton, 2014).
Early efforts during this time mainly focused on infectious diseases and zoonoses, establishing the groundwork for broader interdisciplinary integration within the One Health framework.
Modern Era (21st Century)
The One Health framework was formally advanced through the Manhattan Principles at the One World One Health conference organized by the Wildlife Conservation Society in 2004.
These principles highlighted the importance of collaboration among global organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to address health at the human-animal-environment interface (Pettan-Brewer et al., 2024; Evans and Leighton, 2014).
Building on these developments, the One Health Initiative was established in 2007 through collaboration between the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) and the American Medical Association (AMA), marking a formal global effort to promote One Health (Pettan-Brewer et al., 2024).
Over time, the concept has further expanded to include ecosystem health and planetary health perspectives, reflecting its growing scope and global relevance (CDC, 2024).
Core Principles of One Health
Interconnection between Human, Animal, and Environmental Health
The interconnection between human, animal, and environmental health is clearly reflected in shared health risks and environmental influences.
Zoonotic diseases such as Rabies, Ebola, and Lyme disease demonstrate how pathogens can transfer between animals and humans due to close interactions, with environmental factors like deforestation and climate change significantly contributing to their spread (CDC, 2024).
Animals can serve as early warning indicators of environmental hazards that may affect human populations; for example, bird deaths linked to West Nile Virus can signal potential risks to nearby human communities (CDC, 2024).
Changes in land use, including deforestation and urbanization, along with climate disruptions, create favorable conditions for the emergence and spread of infectious diseases.
Intensive farming practices contribute to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and raise concerns regarding food safety (CDC, 2024; World Health Organization, 2022).
Environmental degradation, including pollution and habitat destruction, negatively impacts ecosystems, which in turn affects both human and animal health (World Health Organization, 2023; Evans and Leighton, 2014).
Collaborative Multisectoral and Transdisciplinary Strategies
One Health emphasizes collaboration across human health, animal health, and environmental sectors, promoting joint planning, resource sharing, and integrated responses to health threats (World Health Organization, 2022; TDR, 2025).
Major organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE/WOAH) collaborate through initiatives like the One Health Joint Plan of Action to operationalize One Health at global, regional, and national levels (Dar et al., 2024; WHO, 2022).
Community engagement is a critical component, as involving local communities and stakeholders ensures that interventions are culturally appropriate and sustainable; this includes participatory meetings and joint training programs (Breakthrough ACTION, 2024; Zinsstag and Crump, 2023).
Coordinated surveillance systems across human, animal, and environmental sectors enhance early detection and response to zoonotic diseases and other health threats (Ghai et al., 2022; ICF, 2021).
Joint outbreak investigations conducted by multisectoral teams improve response efficiency and reduce costs, as demonstrated in responses to diseases such as monkeypox, leptospirosis, and Rift Valley fever (Ghai et al., 2022).
The transdisciplinary nature of One Health integrates expertise from fields such as public health, veterinary medicine, ecology, and social sciences to address complex health challenges comprehensively (Dar et al., 2024; Kelly et al., 2017).
Capacity building through training programs and workshops strengthens interdisciplinary collaboration and equips professionals with the skills required to implement One Health strategies effectively (World Health Organization, 2022; Breakthrough ACTION, 2024).
Research and innovation are essential components, with initiatives like the PREDICT project focusing on early detection of zoonotic viruses and health risks at the human-animal-environment interface (Kelly et al., 2017).
Importance of One Health in Addressing Global Health Challenges
Emerging Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses
Over 75% of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic in origin, meaning they originate from animals and can be transmitted to humans.
One Health promotes early detection and rapid response to zoonotic diseases such as Ebola, Rabies, and Avian influenza by integrating surveillance systems across human, animal, and environmental sectors (Erkyihun and Alemayehu, 2022; Ghai et al., 2022).
The importance of mitigating pandemic risks became especially evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, which highlighted the critical role of One Health in managing zoonotic spillover events.
Collaborative One Health efforts help reduce risks associated with factors such as wildlife trade, deforestation, and climate change (World Health Organization, 2022; Bayerlein and Villarreal Lizárraga, 2023).
Antimicrobial Resistance and Its Global Impact
One Health addresses the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in human medicine, agriculture, and animal husbandry, all of which contribute significantly to antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
Coordinated, cross-sectoral strategies are essential for implementing antimicrobial stewardship programs and limiting the spread of resistant pathogens (Global AMR R&D Hub, 2024; Velázquez-Meza et al., 2022).
By linking human, animal, and environmental health, One Health supports holistic solutions that promote research and policy development aimed at preserving antimicrobial effectiveness and reducing global AMR threats (Global AMR R&D Hub, 2024; Velázquez-Meza et al., 2022).
Food Safety and Security Concerns
One Health promotes a comprehensive approach to food safety by addressing contamination risks throughout the entire food chain, from production to consumption.
This integrated approach helps reduce the burden of foodborne illnesses, which affect millions of people annually, particularly among vulnerable populations (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization for Animal Health, and World Health Organization, 2022).
Key global initiatives such as the One Health Joint Plan of Action (OH JPA) and the Quadripartite—comprising the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH)—provide structured frameworks for countries to implement One Health strategies and strengthen global health security (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2025).
One Health also advocates for integrated, multisectoral policies that address health risks in a holistic manner, ensuring efficient use of resources and coordinated responses to public health emergencies (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2025; Bayerlein & Villarreal Lizárraga, 2023).
Applications of One Health
One Health integrates human, animal, and environmental health to prevent zoonotic diseases, combat antimicrobial resistance through responsible antibiotic use, and ensure food safety by bridging medical and veterinary sciences (WHO, 2022; Feng et al., 2022; Agarwal et al., 2024; Rai et al., 2024).
It plays a crucial role in promoting biodiversity conservation and addressing environmental challenges such as climate change, while also strengthening global health security through coordinated international actions.
Major organizations, including the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE/WOAH), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), actively collaborate to implement One Health strategies at global levels (WHO, 2022; Feng et al., 2022; Agarwal et al., 2024; Rai et al., 2024).
Applications of One Health include the prevention and control of zoonotic diseases through integrated surveillance, early detection, and coordinated response mechanisms across sectors.
It addresses antimicrobial resistance (AMR) by promoting rational and responsible use of antibiotics in human medicine, veterinary practices, and agriculture.
One Health ensures food safety and security by managing risks across the entire food production and supply chain, reducing contamination and foodborne illnesses.
It contributes to ecosystem health and biodiversity conservation by recognizing the importance of balanced ecosystems in maintaining overall health.
The approach enhances global health security by strengthening preparedness, surveillance systems, and coordinated responses to emerging health threats.
It also addresses the impact of climate change on health, particularly in relation to vector-borne diseases, by integrating environmental monitoring with public and animal health strategies.
Case Studies Demonstrating One Health in Action
The COVID-19 pandemic has clearly demonstrated the importance of a coordinated approach that integrates human, animal, and environmental health.
The One Health approach enhances pandemic preparedness and response by emphasizing early detection systems, rapid response mechanisms, and preventive strategies to control the spread of infectious diseases.
It supports the development of predictive models and risk assessment tools that help forecast potential pandemics and identify key contributing factors such as habitat destruction, wildlife trade, and climate change.
One Health also promotes investment in research on emerging infectious diseases to better understand their origins, transmission dynamics, and potential impact on global populations.
By integrating surveillance, research, environmental monitoring, and cross-sector collaboration, One Health provides a proactive and comprehensive framework aimed at preventing future pandemics (Danasekaran, 2024).
Organizations and Initiatives Promoting One Health
The World Health Organization (WHO) integrates the One Health approach into global health policies, with a focus on the prevention, detection, preparedness, and management of zoonotic diseases, antimicrobial resistance, and food safety (WHO, 2022).
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) implements the One Health approach to address zoonotic diseases, antimicrobial resistance, vector-borne diseases, and environmental contamination, while promoting collaboration among human health professionals, veterinarians, ecologists, policymakers, and communities to strengthen global health security (CDC, 2024).
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) advances One Health within the agricultural sector by focusing on food safety, livestock health, and the prevention of zoonotic diseases (WHO, 2023).
The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) emphasizes animal health as a key pillar of One Health, contributing to disease surveillance, veterinary capacity building, and the reduction of zoonotic risks (WHO, 2023).
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) addresses the environmental aspects of One Health by focusing on challenges such as habitat fragmentation, biodiversity loss, and the health impacts of climate change (WHO, 2023).
The Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA) promotes international collaboration to strengthen surveillance systems and response mechanisms for zoonotic diseases and antimicrobial resistance through the One Health framework (Delesalle et al., 2022).
Challenges and Future Directions in Implementing One Health
Challenges
One Health implementation faces several challenges, including a lack of effective cross-sector coordination among human health, animal health, and environmental sectors, which limits integrated action (Pepin et al., 2024; Kaylor, 2025; WHO, 2023).
Data sharing and governance issues present major barriers, as differences in policies, data ownership, and standardization hinder efficient information exchange across sectors.
Resource constraints, including limited funding, workforce shortages, and inadequate infrastructure, restrict the successful execution of One Health initiatives, particularly in low-resource settings.
Disciplinary bias and communication barriers between professionals from different fields, such as medicine, veterinary sciences, and environmental sciences, can impede collaboration and mutual understanding.
Infrastructure limitations, including insufficient laboratory capacity, surveillance systems, and technological support, further challenge effective implementation.
Overlap with other health and environmental models can create confusion, redundancy, and inefficiencies in policy development and execution.
Global alignment challenges arise due to differences in national priorities, policies, and levels of commitment, making it difficult to achieve coordinated international action.
Future Directions
Expanding the scope and inclusivity of One Health to incorporate broader perspectives, including social, economic, and ecological dimensions, is essential for addressing complex global health challenges.
Strengthening governance frameworks will help improve coordination, accountability, and policy implementation across sectors and countries.
Improving data systems, including standardized data collection, sharing mechanisms, and digital integration, will enhance surveillance and decision-making processes.
Capacity building through education, training programs, and skill development is crucial for developing a workforce capable of implementing One Health approaches effectively.
Increasing community engagement ensures that interventions are culturally appropriate, sustainable, and widely accepted at the local level.
Long-term investment in research is necessary to better understand emerging health threats, zoonotic diseases, and environmental interactions.
Strengthening global collaboration among international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and other stakeholders will enhance coordinated responses to global health issues (Mumford et al., WHO, 2023; Kaylor, 2025).
Barriers to Multisectoral Collaboration
Governance and leadership deficits, along with resource constraints, sectoral silos, and communication gaps, pose significant challenges to the effective implementation of the One Health approach.
A lack of political will and weak institutional frameworks often prevent governments from prioritizing One Health initiatives, limiting coordinated action across sectors (Sanga et al., 2024).
Policy fragmentation across key sectors such as health, agriculture, and the environment further hinders collaboration and integrated decision-making.
For example, federal restructuring in Nepal has contributed to delays in the development and execution of multisectoral action plans (Yopa et al., 2023; Hussein et al., 2025).
Gaps in institutional awareness and limited scientific evidence demonstrating the health benefits of conservation efforts weaken intersectoral collaboration and reduce engagement among stakeholders.
Organizations such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) highlight the need for stronger evidence and awareness to support integrated conservation and health strategies (Sanga et al., 2024; IUCN, 2024).
Strategies for Enhancing Global Health Security through One Health
Strengthening multisectoral governance is essential for effective One Health implementation, involving clear leadership, coordinated policies, and strong institutional frameworks that integrate human, animal, and environmental health sectors.
Enhancing surveillance and data sharing across sectors improves early detection, monitoring, and response to emerging health threats, enabling timely interventions and informed decision-making.
Combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR) requires coordinated efforts to promote responsible use of antimicrobials in human medicine, veterinary practice, and agriculture, supported by stewardship programs and regulatory policies.
Fostering global and regional collaboration among key organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) strengthens coordinated responses to global health challenges.
Prioritizing equity and community engagement ensures that One Health interventions are inclusive, culturally appropriate, and sustainable, particularly for vulnerable and high-risk populations.
Conclusion
The One Health approach provides a powerful and integrated framework for addressing complex and interconnected global health challenges.
It links human, animal, and environmental health to effectively tackle major issues such as zoonotic diseases, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), food safety, and climate change.
The approach emphasizes the importance of cross-sector collaboration among multiple disciplines and organizations, even in the face of existing implementation challenges.
Ultimately, One Health serves as a critical pathway toward building a healthier, more resilient, and sustainable world.
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